Louis Armstrong

Historical Importance of Louis Armstrong: Born into poverty at the turn of the twentieth century, Louis Armstrong rose above humble origins to become a masterful trumpet player and beloved entertainer. He played a key role in the development of one of the early twentieth century's most important new styles of music --jazz. Armstrong's inventiveness and improvisational techniques, along with his energetic, dazzling style have influenced generations of musicians. One of the first to perform scat-style singing, he is well-known also for his distinctive gravelly singing voice. Armstrong wrote two autobiographies and appeared in more than thirty films.

Dates: August 4, 1901^* - July 6, 1971

Also Known As: Satchmo, Pops

Childhood in New Orleans

Louis Armstrong was born in New Orleans, Louisiana to sixteen-year-old Mayann Albert and her boyfriend Willie Armstrong. Only weeks after Louis' birth, Willie left Mayann and Louis was placed in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong.

Josephine brought in some money doing laundry for white families, but struggled to keep food on the table. Young Louis Armstrong had no toys, very few clothes, and went barefoot most of the time. Despite their hardships, Josephine made sure that her grandson attended school and church.

While Louis was living with his grandmother, his mother briefly reunited with Willie Armstrong and gave birth to a second child, Beatrice, in 1903. While Beatrice was still very young, Willie once again left Mayann.

Four years later, when Armstrong was six years old, he moved back in with his mother, who was then living in a tough neighborhood called Storyville. It became Louis’ job to look after his sister.

Working on the Streets

By the age of seven, Armstrong was looking for work wherever he could find it. He sold newspapers and vegetables and made a little money singing on the street with a group of friends. Each group member had a nickname; Louis Armstrong's was "Satchelmouth" (later shortened to "Satchmo"), a reference to his wide grin. Armstrong saved up enough money to buy a used cornet (a brass musical instrument similar to a trumpet), which he taught himself to play. He quit school at age eleven to concentrate on earning money for his family.

While performing on the street, Armstrong and his friends came into contact with local musicians, many of whom played in Storyville honky-tonks (bars with working-class patrons, often found in the South). Armstrong was befriended by one of the city's best known trumpeters, Bunk Johnson, who taught him songs and new techniques and allowed Louis to sit in with him during performances in the honky-tonks.

Armstrong managed to stay out of trouble until an incident on New Year's Eve 1912 changed the course of his life.

The Colored Waif's Home

During a New Year's Eve street celebration at the end of 1912, eleven-year-old Louis fired a pistol into the air. He was hauled off to the police station and spent the night in a cell. The next morning, a judge sentenced him to the Colored Waif's Home for an unspecified period of time.

The home, a reformatory for troubled black youths, was run by a former soldier, Captain Jones. Jones provided discipline as well as regular meals and daily classes, all of which had a positive effect on Armstrong. Eager to participate in the home's brass band, Armstrong was disappointed that he was not allowed to join right away. The band director surmised that a boy from Storyville who had fired a gun did not belong in his band.

Armstrong proved the director wrong as he worked his way up the ranks. He first sang in the choir and later was assigned to play various instruments, eventually taking over the cornet. Having demonstrated his willingness to work hard and act responsibly, young Louis Armstrong was made leader of the band. He reveled in this role.

In 1914, after eighteen months at the Colored Waif's Home, it was time for Armstrong to return home to his mother.

Becoming a Musician

Back home again, Armstrong worked delivering coal during the day and spent his nights in local dance halls listening to music. He became friends with Joe "King" Oliver, a leading cornet player, and ran errands for him in return for cornet lessons. Armstrong learned quickly and began to develop his own style. He filled in for Oliver at gigs and gained further experience playing in parades and funeral marches.

When the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, Armstrong was too young to participate, but the war did indirectly affect him. When several sailors stationed in New Orleans became victims of violent crime in the Storyville district, the secretary of the Navy shut the district down, including brothels and clubs. While a large number of New Orleans' musicians moved north, many relocating to Chicago, Armstrong stayed and soon found himself in demand as a cornet player.

By 1918, Armstrong had become well-known on the New Orleans music circuit, playing at numerous venues. That year, he met and married Daisy Parker, a prostitute who worked in one of the clubs he played in.

Leaving New Orleans

Impressed by Armstrong's natural talent, band conductor Fate Marable hired him to play in his riverboat band on excursions up and down the Mississippi River. Armstrong convinced Daisy that it was a good move for his career and she agreed to let him go.

Armstrong played on the riverboats for three years. The discipline and high standards that he was held to made him a better musician; he also learned to read music for the first time. Yet, chafing under Marable's strict rules, Armstrong grew restless. He yearned to strike out on his own and find his unique style. Armstrong quit the band in 1921 and returned to New Orleans. He and Daisy divorced that year.

Louis Armstrong Earns a Reputation

In 1922, a year after Armstrong quit the riverboats, King Oliver asked him to come to Chicago and join his Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong played second cornet and was careful not to outshine band leader Oliver. Through Oliver, Armstrong met the woman who became his second wife, Lil Hardin, who was a classically-trained jazz pianist from Memphis.

Lil recognized Armstrong's talent and thus urged him to break away from Oliver's band. After two years with Oliver, Armstrong quit the band and took a new job with another Chicago band, this time as first trumpet; however, he only stayed a few months.

Armstrong moved to New York City in 1924 at the invitation of bandleader Fletcher Henderson. (Lil did not accompany him, preferring to stay at her job in Chicago.) The band played mostly live gigs, but made recordings as well. They played backup for pioneering blues singers such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, furthering Armstrong's growth as a performer.

Just fourteen months later, Armstrong moved back to Chicago at Lil's urging; Lil believed that Henderson held back Armstrong's creativity.

"The World's Greatest Trumpet Player"

Lil helped to promote Armstrong in Chicago clubs, billing him as "the world's greatest trumpet player." She and Armstrong formed a studio band, called Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five. The group recorded several popular records, many of which featured Armstrong's raspy singing.

On one of the most popular of the recordings, "Heebie Jeebies," Armstrong spontaneously launched into scat-singing, in which the singer replaces the actual lyrics with nonsense syllables that often mimic the sounds made by instruments. Armstrong did not invent the singing style, but helped to make it enormously popular.

During this time, Armstrong permanently switched from cornet to trumpet, preferring the brighter sound of the trumpet to the more mellow cornet.

The records gave Armstrong name recognition outside of Chicago. He returned to New York in 1929, but again, Lil did not want to leave Chicago. (They stayed married, but lived apart for many years before divorcing in 1938.)

In New York, Armstrong found a new venue for his talents; he was cast in a musical revue that featured the hit song "Ain't Misbehavin' " and Armstrong's accompanying trumpet solo. Armstrong displayed showmanship and charisma, gaining a greater following after the show.

The Great Depression

Because of the Great Depression, Armstrong, like many others, had trouble finding work. He decided to make a new start in Los Angeles, moving there in May 1930. Armstrong found work in clubs and continued to make records. He made his first film, Ex-Flame, appearing as himself in the movie in a small role. Armstrong gained more fans through this widespread exposure.

After an arrest for marijuana possession in November 1930, Armstrong received a suspended sentence and returned to Chicago. He stayed afloat during the Depression, touring the U.S. and Europe from 1931 to 1935.

Armstrong continued to tour throughout the 1930s and 1940s and appeared in a few more movies. He became well-known not only in the U.S., but in much of Europe as well, even playing a command performance for King George V of England in 1932.

Big Changes for Armstrong

In the late 1930s, band leaders such as Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman helped to propel jazz into the mainstream, ushering in the "swing music" era. The swing bands were large, consisting of about fifteen musicians. Although Armstrong preferred working with smaller, more intimate ensembles, he formed a large band in order to capitalize on the swing movement.

In 1938, Armstrong married longtime girlfriend Alpha Smith, but soon after the wedding began seeing Lucille Wilson, a dancer from the Cotton Club. Marriage number three ended in divorce in 1942 and Armstrong took Lucille as his fourth (and final) wife the same year.

While Armstrong toured, often playing at military bases and army hospitals during World War II, Lucille found them a house in Queens, New York (her hometown). After years of traveling and staying in hotel rooms, Armstrong finally had a permanent home.

Louis and the All-Stars

In the late 1940s, large bands were falling out of favor, deemed too expensive to maintain. Armstrong formed a six-piece group called Louis Armstrong and the All-Stars. The group debuted at New York's Town Hall in 1947, playing New Orleans style jazz to rave reviews.

Not everyone enjoyed Armstrong's somewhat "hammy" brand of entertainment. Many from the younger generation considered him a relic of the Old South and found his mugging and eye-rolling racially offensive. He was not taken seriously by young up-and-coming jazz musicians. Armstrong, however, saw his role as more than that of a musician -- he was an entertainer.

Continued Success and Controversy

Armstrong made eleven more movies in the 1950s. He toured Japan and Africa with the All-Stars and recorded his first singles.

Armstrong faced criticism in 1957 for speaking out against racial discrimination during the episode in Little Rock, Arkansas in which black students were heckled by whites while attempting to enter a newly integrated school. Some radio stations even refused to play his music. The controversy faded after Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock to facilitate integration.

On tour in Italy in 1959, Armstrong suffered a massive heart attack. After a week in the hospital, he flew back home. Despite warnings from physicians, Armstrong returned to a busy schedule of live performances.

Number One at Last

After playing five decades without a number-one song, Armstrong finally made it to the top of the charts in 1964 with "Hello Dolly," the theme song for the Broadway play of the same name. The popular song knocked the Beatles from the top spot they had held for 14 consecutive weeks.

By the late 1960s, Armstrong was still able to perform, despite kidney and heart problems. In spring 1971, he suffered another heart attack. Unable to recover, Armstrong died July 6, 1971. More than 25,000 mourners visited the body of Louis Armstrong as it lay in state and his funeral was televised nationally.

* Throughout his life, Louis Armstrong claimed that his birth date was July 4, 1900, but documents found after his death confirmed the actual date to be August 4, 1901.

Stephen Ambrose

Historical Importance of Stephen Ambrose: Stephen Ambrose was a major historian of the late 20th century. In his lifetime, he wrote over thirty books, covering a wide variety of historical topics. Ambrose believed that history should be interesting as well as accurate, which made him a very popular author.

Dates: January 10, 1936 -- October 13, 2002

Also Known As: Stephen Edward Ambrose

Overview of Stephen Ambrose:

I have to admit, Stephen Ambrose was an idol of mine. During a time when historians were usually thought of as quiet men sitting behind desks writing only for other historians, Ambrose managed to break through the stereotype. He found a way to bring history to everyday people. He made studying history a popular pastime.

It seemed that nearly ever time I went to the bookstore, I would find a fascinating new book by Ambrose. Even if it wasn't on a topic I am usually interested in, by the time I picked it up, his friendly prose and interesting facts drew me in every time. And did you ever hear him speak? His husky voice (now I realize, probably caused by the decades of smoking) was mesmerizing as his passion for the people and the past made history come alive.

The Early Years of Stephen Ambrose

Stephen Ambrose was born on January 10, 1936, in Decatur, Illinois but spent his childhood in the small town of Whitewater, Wisconsin. The town was a little too small for Ambrose, so he was excited about heading off to college to study pre-med, preparing to follow in his father's footsteps and become a medical doctor.

Ambrose Finds a Mentor

Stephen Ambrose's future changed drastically when he took a history class from William B. Hesseltine entitled "Representative Americans." Fascinated by Hesseltine's lecturing style, which made the story come alive, Ambrose quickly changed his major to history and graduated with a B.A. in 1957.

Ambrose continued studying history at the Louisiana State University where he earned his Masters degree in 1958. He then returned to the University of Wisconsin and in 1963, earned his Ph.D. in History.

It was while studying with Hesseltine at the University of Wisconsin, that Ambrose began perfecting the prose that made him popular. Hesseltine had firm rules about writing such as "abandon chronology at your peril; use the active voice; avoid adverbs whenever possible; be frugal with adjectives, as they are but the salt and pepper for the meat (nouns)." ^*

Teaching and Writing

Ambrose used this knowledge to teach history and to write books. From 1960 to 1995, Ambrose taught university-level history courses mostly at the University of New Orleans and Johns Hopkins University.

As early as 1961 - two years before he received his doctorate - Ambrose had written his first book, Wisconsin Boy in Dixie, followed closely by his second book, Halleck, Lincoln's Chief of Staff. Ambrose's book on Halleck caught the eye of former President Dwight Eisenhower. Liking Ambrose's writing style, Eisenhower asked him to be his official biographer.

Ambrose's Books

Making history interesting is what made Ambrose popular. Throughout his career, he wroteover 30 books about history. Ambrose started out as a Civil War historian but also covered such varied topics as Richard Nixon, George A. Custer, Lewis and Clark, and the transcontinental railroad - to name just a few. However, Ambrose is best known for his work on World War II.

No War Experience

Alhough perhaps you wouldn't know it from reading his books, which bring the reader to the action, Ambrose never fought in a war. He was a good ten years too young to fight in World War II and missed the Korean War by just months. However, growing up, Ambrose admired those who had fought for their country.

Ambrose wrote numerous books about World War II, most of which focused on the soldiers themselves. Several of his books were so widely read that they became best sellers.

Stephen Ambrose Founded the National D-Day Museum

In addition to writing books about the soldiers of World War II, Ambrose founded the National D-Day Museum in New Orleans, which opened its doors on June 6, 2000. The museum covers all the amphibious invasions of World War II and is meant to be a tribute to the people who fought in that war.

Plagiarism

Unfortunately, however, Ambrose had come under attack for plagiarism over the last year of his life. He was accused of using the exact words of other historians and not quoting them.

Ambrose responded to these criticisms. He admitted that he may have accidentally left out a few quotation marks, but pointed out that the sentences in question had been footnoted. To remedy the situation, he readily agreed to add the quotation marks in the next editions of the books in question.

Cancer

The accusations of plagiarism came at a bad time for Ambrose. In April 2002, he was diagnosed with lung cancer, caused by his long-time smoking habit.

Knowing he had only a short time to live, Ambrose modeled his remaining few months on Ulysses S. Grant who wrote his memoirs while suffering from throat cancer. Ambrose's memoir,To America: Personal Reflections of an Historian, was released on November 19, 2002.

Around 4 a.m. on Sunday, October 13, 2002, Stephen Ambrose passed away at age 66 at the Hancock Medical Center in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi.

Ambrose was survived by his wife, Moira, and his five children: Hugh, Andy, Barry, Grace and Stephenie.

* Stephen Ambrose, Stephen Ambrose Official Web Site (http://www.stephenambrose.com/bio.html).

Muhammad Ali

Muhammad Ali is one of the most famous boxers of all time. His conversion to Islam and draft evasion conviction surrounded him with controversy and even exile from boxing for three years. Despite the hiatus, his quick reflexes and strong punches helped Muhammad Ali become the first person in history to win the heavyweight champion title three times. At the lighting ceremony at the 1996 Olympics, Muhammad Ali showed the world his strength and determination in dealing with the debilitating effects of Parkinson's syndrome.

Dates: January 17, 1942 --

Also Known As: (born as) Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., "The Greatest," the Louisville Lip

Married:

• Sonji Roi (1964 - 1966)
• Belinda Boyd (1967 - circa 1977)
• Veronica Porche (1977 - 1996)
• Yolanda "Lonnie" Williams (1996 - Present)

Childhood of Muhammad Ali

Muhammad Ali was born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. at 6:35 p.m. on January 17, 1942 in Louisville, Kentucky to Cassius Clay Sr. and Odessa Grady Clay. Cassius Clay Sr. was a muralist, but painted signs for a living. Odessa Clay worked as a housecleaner and a cook. Two years after Muhammad Ali was born, the couple had another son, Rudolph ("Rudy").

The Stolen Bicycle: Muhammad Ali Becomes a Boxer

When Muhammad Ali was 12 years old, he and a friend went to the Columbia Auditorium to partake in the free hot dogs and popcorn available for visitors of the Louisville Home Show. When the boys were done eating, they went back to get their bicycles only to discover that Muhammad Ali's had been stolen.

Furious, Muhammad Ali went to the basement of the Columbia Auditorium to report the crime to police officer Joe Martin, who was also a boxing coach at the Columbia Gym. When Muhammad Ali said he wanted to beat up the person who stole his bike, Martin told him that he should probably learn to fight first. A few days later, Muhammad Ali began boxing training at Martin's gym.

From the very beginning, Muhammad Ali took his training seriously. He trained six days a week. On schooldays, he woke early in the morning so that he could go running and then would go workout at the gym in the evening. When Martin's gym closed at 8 pm, Ali would then go train at another boxing gym. Over time, Muhammad Ali also created his own eating regimen that included milk and raw eggs for breakfast. Concerned about what he put in his body, Ali stayed away from junk food, alcohol, and cigarettes so that he could be the best boxer in the world.

The 1960 Olympics

Even in his early training, Muhammad Ali boxed like no one else. He was fast. So fast that he didn't duck punches like most other boxers; instead, he just leaned back away from them. He also didn't put his hands up to protect his face; he kept them down by his hips.

In 1960, the Olympic Games were held in Rome. Muhammad Ali, then 18 years old, had already won national tournaments such as the Golden Gloves and so he felt ready to compete in the Olympics. On September 5, 1960, Muhammad Ali (then still known as Cassius Clay) fought against Zbigniew Pietrzyskowski from Poland in the light-heavyweight championship bout. In a unanimous decision, the judges declared Ali the winner, which meant Ali had won the Olympic gold medal.

Having won the Olympic gold medal, Muhammad Ali had attained the top position in amateur boxing. It was time for him to turn professional.

Wins the Heavyweight Title

As Muhammad Ali started fighting in professional boxing bouts, he realized that there things he could do to create attention for himself. For instance, before fights, Ali would say things to worry his opponents. He would also frequently declare, "I am the greatest of all time!" Often before a fight, Ali would write poetry that would either called the round his opponent would fall or boast of his own abilities. Muhammad Ali's most famous line was when he stated he was going to "Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

His theatrics worked. Many people paid to see Muhammad Ali's fights just to see such a braggart lose. In 1964, even the heavyweight champion, Charles "Sonny" Liston got caught up in the hype and agreed to fight Muhammad Ali.

On February 25, 1964, Muhammad Ali fought Liston for the heavyweight title in Miami, Florida. Liston tried for a quick knockout, but Ali was too fast to catch. By the 7th round, Liston was too exhausted, had hurt his shoulder, and was worried about a cut under his eye. Liston refused to continue the fight. Muhammad Ali had become the heavyweight boxing champion of the world.

The Nation of Islam and Name Change

The day after the championship bout with Liston, Muhammad Ali publicly announced his conversion to Islam. The public was not happy. Ali had joined the Nation of Islam, a group led by Elijah Muhammad that advocated for a separate black nation. Since many people found the Nation of Islam's beliefs to be racist, they were angry and disappointed that Ali had joined them.

Up to this point, Muhammad Ali was still known as Cassius Clay. When he joined the Nation of Islam in 1964, he shed his "slave name" (he had been named after a white abolitionist that had freed his slaves) and took on the new name of Muhammad Ali.

Banned From Boxing: Draft Evasion

During the three years after the Liston fight, Ali won every bout. He had become one of the most popular athletes of 1960s. He had become a symbol of black pride. Then in 1967, Muhammad Ali received a draft notice.

The United States was calling up young men to fight in the Vietnam War. Since Muhammad Ali was a famous boxer, he could have requested special treatment and just entertained the troops. However, Ali's deep religious beliefs forbade killing, even in war, and so Ali refused to go.

In June 1967, Muhammad Ali was tried and found guilty of draft evasion. Although he was fined $10,000 and sentenced to five years in jail, he remained out on bail while he appealed. However, in response to public outrage, Muhammad Ali was banned from boxing and stripped of his heavyweight title.

For three and a half years, Muhammad Ali was "exiled" from professional boxing. While watching others claim the heavyweight title, Ali lectured around the country to earn some money.

Jane Addams

Who was Jane Addams?

Humanitarian and social reformer Jane Addams, born into wealth and privilege, devoted herself to improving the lives of those less fortunate. Although she is best remembered for establishing Hull House (a settlement house in Chicago for immigrants and the poor), Addams was also deeply committed to promoting peace, civil rights, and women's right to vote. Addams was a founding member of both the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the American Civil Liberties Union. As recipient of the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize, she was the first American woman to receive that honor. Jane Addams is considered by many a pioneer in the field of modern social work.

Dates: September 6, 1860 -- May 21, 1935

Also Known As: Laura Jane Addams (born as), "Saint Jane," "Angel of Hull House"

Childhood in Illinois

Laura Jane Addams was born September 6, 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois to Sarah Weber Addams and John Huy Addams. She was the eighth of nine children, four of whom did not survive infancy. Sarah Addams died a week after giving birth to a premature baby (that also died) in 1863 when Laura Jane -- later known just as Jane -- was only two years old.

Jane's father ran a successful mill business, which enabled him to build a large, beautiful home for his family. John Addams was also an Illinois state senator and a close friend of Abraham Lincoln, whose anti-slavery sentiments he shared. Jane learned as an adult that her father had been a "conductor" on the Underground Railroad and had helped escaped slaves as they made their way to Canada.

When Jane was six, the family suffered another loss -- her 16-year old sister Martha succumbed to typhoid fever. The following year, John Addams married Anna Haldeman, a widow with two sons. Jane became close to her new stepbrother George, who was only six months younger than she. They attended school together and both planned to go to college one day.

College Days

Jane Addams had set her sights on Smith College, a prestigious women's school in Massachusetts, with the goal of eventually earning a medical degree. After months of preparing for the difficult entrance exams, 16-year-old Jane learned in July 1877 that she'd been accepted at Smith.

John Addams had different plans for Jane. After losing his first wife and five of his children, he didn't want his daughter to move so far away from home. Addams insisted that Jane enroll in Rockford Female Seminary, a Presbyterian-based women's school in nearby Rockford, Illinois that her sisters had attended. Jane had no other choice but to obey her father.

Rockford Female Seminary schooled its students in both academics and religion in a strict, regimented atmosphere. Jane settled into the routine, becoming a confident writer and public speaker by the time she graduated in 1881. Many of her classmates went on to become missionaries, but Jane Addams believed that she could find a way of serving mankind without promoting Christianity. Although a spiritual person, Addams did not belong to any particular church.

Difficult Times for Jane Addams

Returning home to her father's house, Addams felt lost, uncertain about what to do next with her life. Postponing any decision about her future, she chose to accompany her father and stepmother on a trip to Michigan instead. The trip ended in tragedy when John Addams became gravely ill and died suddenly of appendicitis. A grieving Jane Addams, seeking direction in her life, applied to the Women's Medical College of Philadelphia, where she was accepted for the fall of 1881.

Addams coped with her loss by immersing herself in her studies at the medical college. Unfortunately, only months after she'd begun classes, she developed chronic back pain, caused by curvature of the spine. Addams had surgery in late 1882 which improved her condition somewhat, but following a lengthy, difficult recovery period, decided that she would not return to school.

A Life-Changing Journey

Addams next embarked upon a trip abroad, a traditional rite of passage among wealthy young people in the nineteenth century. Accompanied by her stepmother and cousins, Addams sailed to Europe for a two-year tour in 1883. What began as an exploration of the sights and cultures of Europe became, in fact, an eye-opening experience for Addams.

Addams was stunned by the poverty she witnessed in the slums of European cities. One episode in particular affected her deeply. The tour bus she was riding stopped on a street in the impoverished East End of London. A group of unwashed, raggedly-dressed people stood in line, waiting to purchase rotten produce that had been discarded by merchants. Addams watched as one man paid for a spoiled cabbage, then gobbled it down -- neither washed nor cooked. She was horrified that the city would allow its citizens to live in such wretched conditions.

Grateful for all of her own blessings, Jane Addams believed it was her duty to help those less fortunate. She had inherited a large sum of money from her father, but was not yet sure how she could best put it to use.

Jane Addams Finds Her Calling

Returning to the U.S. in 1885, Addams and her stepmother spent summers in Cedarville and winters in Baltimore, Maryland, where Addams' stepbrother George Haldeman attended medical school. Mrs. Addams expressed her fond hope that Jane and George would marry one day. George did have romantic feelings for Jane, but she didn't return the sentiment. Jane Addams was never known to have had a romantic relationship with any man.

While in Baltimore, Addams was expected to attend countless parties and society functions with her stepmother. She detested these obligations, preferring instead to visit the city's charitable institutions, such as shelters and orphanages. Still uncertain of what role she could play, Addams decided to go abroad again, hoping to clear her mind. She traveled to Europe in 1887 with Ellen Gates Starr, a friend from the Rockford Seminary.

Eventually, inspiration did come to Addams when she visited Ulm Cathedral in Germany, where she felt a sense of unity. Addams envisioned creating what she called a "Cathedral of Humanity," a place where people in need could come not only for help with basic needs, but also for cultural enrichment.^* Addams traveled to London, where she visited an organization that would serve as a model for her project – Toynbee Hall. Toynbee Hall was a "settlement house," where young, educated men lived in a poor community in order to get to know its residents and to learn how best to serve them. Addams proposed that she would open such a center in an American city. Starr agreed to help her.

Founding Hull House

Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr decided upon Chicago as the ideal city for their new venture. Starr had worked as a teacher in Chicago and was familiar with the city's neighborhoods; she also knew several prominent people there. The women moved to Chicago in January 1889 when Addams was 28 years old.

Addams' family thought her idea was absurd, but she would not be dissuaded. She and Starr set out to find a large house situated in an underprivileged area. After weeks of searching, they found a house in Chicago's 19th Ward that had been built 33 years earlier by businessman Charles Hull. The house had once been surrounded by farmland, but the neighborhood had evolved into an industrial area.

Addams and Starr renovated the house and moved in on September 18, 1889. Neighbors were reluctant at first to pay them a visit, suspicious about what the two well-dressed women's motives might be. Visitors, mainly immigrants, began to trickle in, and Addams and Starr quickly learned to set priorities based upon the needs of their clients. It soon became apparent that providing childcare for working parents was a top priority.

Assembling a group of well-educated volunteers, Addams and Starr set up a kindergarten class, as well as programs and lectures for both children and adults. They provided other vital services, such as finding jobs for the unemployed, caring for the sick, and supplying food and clothing to the needy. (Pictures of Hull House)

Hull House attracted the attention of wealthy Chicagoans, many of whom wanted to help. Addams solicited donations from them, allowing her to build a play area for the children, as well as to add a library, an art gallery, and even a post office. Eventually, Hull House took up an entire block of the neighborhood.

Working for Social Reform

As Addams and Starr familiarized themselves with the living conditions of the people around them, they recognized the need for real social reform. Well-acquainted with many children who worked more than 60 hours a week, Addams and her volunteers worked to change child labor laws. They provided lawmakers with information they had compiled and spoke at community gatherings. In 1893, the Factory Act, which limited the number of hours a child could work, was passed in Illinois.

Other causes championed by Addams and her colleagues included improving conditions in mental hospitals and poorhouses, creating a juvenile court system, and promoting the unionization of working women. Addams also worked to reform employment agencies, many of which used dishonest practices, especially in dealing with vulnerable new immigrants. A state law was passed in 1899 that regulated those agencies.

Addams became personally involved with another issue: uncollected garbage on the streets in her neighborhood. The garbage, she argued, attracted vermin and contributed to the spread of disease. In 1895, Addams went to City Hall to protest and came away as the newly-appointed garbage inspector for the 19th Ward. She took her job seriously -- the only paying position she'd ever held. Addams rose at dawn, climbing into her carriage to follow and monitor trash collectors. After her one-year term, Addams was happy to report a reduced death rate in the 19th Ward.

Jane Addams: A National Figure

By the early twentieth century, Addams had become well-respected as an advocate for the poor. Thanks to the success of Hull House, settlement houses were established in other major American cities. Addams developed a friendship with President Theodore Roosevelt, who was impressed by the changes she had effected in Chicago. The President stopped by to visit her at Hull House whenever he was in town.

As one of America's most admired women, Addams found new opportunities to give speeches and to write about social reform. She shared her knowledge with others in the hope that more of the underprivileged would receive the help they needed. In 1910, when she was fifty years old, Addams' published her autobiography, Twenty Years at Hull House.

Addams became increasingly involved in more far-reaching causes. An ardent advocate for women's rights, Addams was elected vice-president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1911 and campaigned actively for women's right to vote.

When Theodore Roosevelt ran for re-election as a Progressive Party candidate in 1912, his platform contained many of the social reform policies endorsed by Addams. She supported Roosevelt, but disagreed with his decision not to allow African-Americans to be part of the party's convention. Committed to racial equality, Addams had helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Roosevelt went on to lose the election to Woodrow Wilson.

World War I

A lifelong pacifist, Addams advocated for peace during World War I. She was strongly opposed to the United States entering the war and became involved in two peace organizations: the Woman's Peace Party (which she led) and the International Congress of Women. The latter was a worldwide movement with thousands of members who convened to work on strategies for avoiding war. Despite the best efforts of these organizations, the United States entered the war in April 1917.

Addams was reviled by many for her anti-war stance. Some saw her as anti-patriotic, even traitorous. After the war, Addams toured Europe with members of the International Congress of Women. The women were horrified by the destruction they witnessed and were especially affected by the many starving children they saw. When Addams and her group suggested that starving German children deserved to be helped as much as any other child, they were accused of sympathizing with the enemy.

Addams Receives the Nobel Peace Prize

Addams continued to work for world peace, traveling around the world throughout the 1920s as the president of a new organization, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). Exhausted by the constant travel, Addams developed health problems and suffered a heart attack in 1926, forcing her to resign her leadership role in the WILPF. She completed the second volume of her autobiography, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, in 1929.

During the Great Depression, public sentiment once again favored Jane Addams. She was widely praised for all that she had accomplished and was honored by many institutions. Her greatest honor came in 1931, when Addams was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her work to promote peace worldwide. Because of ill health, she was unable to travel to Norway to accept it. Addams donated most of her prize money to the WILPF.

Jane Addams died of intestinal cancer on May 21, 1935, only three days after her illness had been discovered during exploratory surgery. She was 74 years old. Thousands attended her funeral, fittingly held at Hull House.

The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom is still active today; the Hull House Association was forced to close in January 2012 due to lack of funding.

* Jane Addams described her "Cathedral of Humanity" in her book Twenty Years at Hull House(Cambridge: Andover-Harvard Theological Library, 1910) 149.